QUESTION 1
Contents
QUESTION 2
Question 1: Outline the causes and effects of global warming.
1.0 Overview
Climate change is the shift in normal climatic conditions that lasts for decades. It describes a shift in the climate of specific region or even the entire planet. As the earth warm some parts of t world are experiencing increased frequencies of heavy and extreme precipitation events and local flooding. Others are experiencing increased droughts and famines.
The earth climate patterns create and sustain a natural environment on which humans and all other species depend. The planets environmental zones from equatorial forests to Polar Regions and the wealth of species they contain result from different climates that exist in the earth. The variations in these climates which occur naturally from year to year and over long periods of time can cause disasters including droughts, famine and floods affecting millions of people.
The earth’s climate patterns are governed by average global temperature due to the rising for more than a century. The warming may be a natural temperature fluctuation but greenhouse gases released by industries over the years and increasing as a result of deforestation has greatly contributed to the enhancing of the warming effect induced by normal levels of naturally occurring atmospheric green house gases.
The enhanced greenhouse warming will not affect the planet evenly and the warming time keep o varying between different areas, for example high latitude do experience greatest change in temperature and warming is likely to be delayed in areas influenced by deep sea.
Research has shown that human activities and natural ecosystem in future climatic conditions. The amount of water available for domestic use agriculture industry and generating electricity has been seriously affected by small changes in temperature. The warm temperatures do increase winter rainfall in middle and high latitudes but others will be drier, particularly in the summer.
Agriculture in some regions could benefit from warmer temperatures and increased rainfall. However changes in temperature, rainfall or soil moisture could severely reduce the productivity of marginal lands in areas such as Te zahel and cause food shortage. Forests; which provide variety of products from fuel to food, will also be affected by changes in temperature and rainfall.
The composition of many natural ecosystems will be altered by changes in climate. Beaches and coastal wetlands may be submerged by rising seas, and polar and alpine vegetation zones reduced in size as temperature increases.
In warmer areas, the ocean will heat up and expand and ice in the polar ice caps and in glaciers will melt, thus raising the sea level areas such as the deltaic will be threatened by flooding as well as low lying in the pacific and maldine will be threatened. In warmer areas covered by ice and under permafrost will be reduced .this will affect the delicate polar ecosystems increase the risk of flooding and landslides in some areas and contribute to sea level rise.
Drought, crop failure and floods may drive millions of people from their homes creating unprecedented problem such as environmental refugees trying to find new areas in which to settle. Changes in rainfall patterns may reduce the availability of water, fuel wood, food and animal fodder. Lacks of these essential requirements will in turn reduce human resistance to disease.
Many organizations particularly UNEP has been involved in monitoring and assessing the effect of climate variability on human activities as a result of enhanced greenhouse warming and its influence on global climate as well as society and this paper will be deeply looking at the courses and impacts as expressed in the overview.
2.0 The earths changing climate
The earth’s climate is not constant; temperatures and rainfall vary from year to year and fluctuate widely over much longer periods of time. Indeed, in the earths average annual temperature of only 4-5 degrees Celsius brought about the onset and retreat of the ice ages. Regional climate is also variable where some summers are hotter than average, for instance some winters are wetter or windier. The reasons for such variations are not always understood and are unpredictable. The variation can cause major disruptions to normal climate patterns and have caused the failure of the monsoon over India and droughts across large tracks of Africa, Australia and South America. The strongest `recurrent cause of climate fluctuations is the El. Nino southern oscillation which was a complex set of interactions between the tropical oceans and the atmosphere in the pacific region, which, at its most intense, affects global climatic conditions.
It is widely accepted that arise of 0.3-0.6 c in global mean temperature has taken place over the past 100 years. A change in some of the earth’s physical features also suggests that global temperature in rising. Most mountain glaciers have been retreating since the end of the 19th century. A decrease in the planets snow cover was also recorded. There has also been an average rise of 1-2mm per year in global sea level during the past 100 years some of which is probably related to global warming.
Because temperature variation of this magnitude has occurred before, it is not yet possible to say with certainty whether this recent global warming is natural or caused by human activity.
3.0 Climate change and the greenhouse effect
Global climate patterns are produced by a complex interaction between the sun and the earth’s atmosphere, oceans, ice and land surface. Changes in any of these can upset the established equilibrium and may affect global climate.
The earth’s climate is influenced by average global temperature and is sensitive to change in temperature. The earth has a natural temperature control system that keeps the planet warm enough to sustain life, yet prevents it from overheating. Certain atmospheric gases, the green house gases are critical to this temperature control system.
Greenhouse gases warm the earth and its atmosphere just as glass, in effect, wars the air inside a greenhouse. Grass allows most wavelengths of the suns radiation to pass through it into the greenhouse, where it warms the soil and plants. The contents of the greenhouse, like all bodies, then radiate infrared energy back into the atmosphere. However, the glass in the greenhouse allows only about 10 % of the radiation at these wavelengths to pass through it and escape into the atmosphere; the remainder about 90% of the infrared radiation is trapped in the greenhouse. The temperature of the greenhouse therefore stabilizes at higher level than that of the outside air.
The more complex interaction occurs between solar energy, the earth and the greenhouse gases that surround the earth. The earth’s temperature remains fairly constant because the levels of radiation from the sun that enter the atmosphere are similar to those radiated back into space by the earth and its atmosphere.
However, t temperatures on earth are about 33c higher than those in space because green house gases absorb and trap some of the radiation emitted by the earth. This trapped radiation warms the earth’s atmosphere and, by creating a warm blanket of air around the earth also warm the planets surface. This is known as the green house effect.
4.0 Human influence on climate
Over the past hundred years human activities has significantly altered both the surface of the earth and the composition of its atmosphere. These changes may be causing or contributing to the rise in global temperature observed over the past 150 years.
Greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide exist naturally in the atmosphere but are also released into the atmosphere in great quantities when fossil fuels are burnt as a result of industrial and agricultural activities. The increasing concentrations of these gases in the atmosphere are likely to intensify the greenhouse effect and raise global temperatures.
Concentrations at atmospheric gases were not significantly altered by human activity until the industrial revolution. Atmospheric gases were not significantly altered by human activity until the industrial revolution. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have increased by 26% since pre- industrial times. The main cause is the widespread and large scale combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gases). During which carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
Deforestation, which alters the reflectivity of the earths surface and reduces the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed and conserved naturally by trees in a secondary cause. Some green house gases, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) result only human activity. They result from industrial processes and have been building up in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, CFCs and nitrous oxide remain in the atmosphere for many years.
Changes in the concentration of atmospheric greenhouse gases can alter the way they interact with the atmosphere, oceans and other features of the earth; effects on greenhouse gas concentrations such change are known as greenhouse gas feedbacks.
Computer models indicate that warming will not take place uniformly over the planet; it will be more intense at higher than at lower latitudes and greater in winter than in summer. In some areas I high northern latitude in winter warming could be 50-100 percent greater than the global average. Air temperatures rise more rapidly over land than oceans and there is likely to be a time lay between increased greenhouse gas concentration and increased air temperatures particularly in areas influenced by deep water circulation such as the northern Atlantic and the southern ocean near the Antarctica.
5.0 Impact of climate change
As the green house gas concentrations continue to rise, global warming is likely to have wide ranging effects on the environment and human society. Impact on the environment snow, ice, and glaciers together with permanently frozen ground known as permafrost, extend over 41 million km squared of the earths surface. Areas of ice and snow have a major influence on the global climate are important water resources and support specialized ecosystems and species, global warming will reduce global snow and ice cover and permafrost may disappear completely from some region.
In temperature region (latitudes) seasonal snow is usually close to its melting point. Temperature increase of 1-2 degrees Celsius will significantly reduce snow covers in both hemispheres. Snow reflects the suns radiation much more strongly than grass and soil and this reduce the amount of heat that snow covered land absorbs. When warmer conditions reduce snow cover the warming is intensified as the snow melts because the absorbed ground absorbs more of the sun’s heat.
The factor of ice sheet includes the Antarctic ice sheet- 30 million KM cubed of ice. The earth’s major nice sheet is in Greenland with nearly 3milliom km cubed. The ice sheets do change in size in response to temperature changes and precipitation. Because warm air can carry more water vapor than cold, global warming will increase snow fall in the Polar Regions.
Glaciers cover 16 million km cubed of land in the world may of the world glaciers are retreating particularly those of the Alps and Mande. On global scale, a reduction in the area of glacier will alter the reflectivity of the earth’s surface and thus enhance global warming. The melting of ice sheets and glacier will also contribute to the expected rise in sea- level.
Permafrost being soil or rock that remains at or below 0 degree Celsius throughout the year, Permafrost contains ice. It underlies 20-25 percent of the earth’s land surface, found in the polar and sub Polar Regions. They are first below freezing point and are vulnerable to warming. It can affect the top five meters of permafrost very quickly.
Global warming will raise sea levels by expanding the water of oceans and melting snow, glaciers, and ice. The temperature of ocean is surface water is also expected to increase; this will affect conditions and ecosystems within the ocean alter the interaction between oceans and atmosphere and further influence climate change.
If global warming is greater at polar latitudes than the equator the greatest changes in sea surface temperature will occur in Polar Regions. This will flatten out the regional differences in sea surface temperature that create trade winds and ocean currents-reducing the intensity for both. However, global warming will increase the temperature difference between air over the, land and that over sea. This will cause stronger along shore winds and more upwelling currents in coastal areas. The temperature rise may increase occurrence of tropical cyclones and expand the areas that they occur. The higher sea surface temperatures may also intensify the EL NINO phenomenon which causes extreme weather conditions and disruptions of ocean circulation.
As pertains the ecology of coastal areas, the rise in sea level will damage or destroy the delicate coastal ecosystems that depend on wetlands beaches, coral reefs, mangroves and estuaries. Many fish, birds and mammals rely on coastal wetlands for part of their life cycle. These areas also filter pollutants from coastal waters and help protect the coast from floods.
About one third of the world’s coastlines are sand and single beaches which sustain many animal species. A rise in sea level will increase the rate of erosion of beaches and dunes. The coral reefs are also sensitive to changes in sea temperature and sediment levels; they may not adapt and could be drowned by rapid rise of sea level.
Estuaries may be seriously affected by sea level rise. Tidal waters will flow further upriver widening estuaries and eroding river banks. Estuarine regions could become prone to flooding with stronger tidal flows rising river levels. The river water will become more saline if seawater penetrates further up estuaries causing fresh water plants and animals to retreat.
The higher temperatures will increase the rate of evaporation of moisture from plants, the land and oceans. This increases precipitation on principle of what goes up must come down, but effects are un even. Water resources in arid or semi arid areas are very sensitive to small changes in temperature and rainfall, temperature rise in low latitude areas impacts on water resources may be greatest in these areas because temperatures affect run-off which become groundwater. Global warming will increase the risk of drought wherever temperature increases and there is little increase in rainfall particularly in mid continental, mid latitude regions. Higher temperatures will also affect water supplies from melting snow, during winter especially melting during summer. This means a warmer world, more rain and less snow. Rivers will tend to swell in winter and dry up in summer.
6.0 Ecosystems and vegetation
Natural ecosystems are interdependent networks of plants and animal species inhabitants unmanaged by humans including natural forests, wetlands, deserts, lakes and mountain regions. Climate change and its effects on other aspects of the biosphere, including soil moisture, could shift vegetation zones and the wildlife they support especially at high latitudes and altitudes. climate change could cause significant shift in vegetation as doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide have had serious effects as temperature increase thus increasing precipitation and therefore rise in sea level.
Species distribution and bio diversity could be altered due to change of vegetation zone and therefore typical species. Some species may reduce in size while others cease to exist, disappear from certain regions or become extinct. Sea level rise will affect coastal habitants such as wetlands and marshes. The inland migration of mangrove swamps may be altered in case the inland is developed for agriculture.
7.0 Water resources
Water is the foundation for a fertile environment, and underpins most human activities- agricultural, industrial and domestic. Water is unevenly distributed over the planet, the worlds population is increasing pressure on the available water supply thus lowering water quality. The changes in rainfall- seasonal or long term can cause floods, drought and ecological disasters affecting millions of people.
Global warming is likely to increase rainfall and reduce in others. Increased evaporation rates caused by higher temperatures making other areas dry especially during summer.
Drought can create severe economic and social problems. The most vulnerable industries include crop and livestock production, forestry, fisheries, hydro electricity generation an recreation, shortage of food, raw materials and power lead to an increase in the price of commodities, reduction of number of employees, as well as unemployment which can lead to social unrest. Warming up the globe in high latitudes, leads to higher temperatures could increase the range of crops grown especially in North America and Europe. Under experimental condition, increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide can have a direct effect on growth of rate of crops and weeds. It also reduces water loss from plants leaves hence reduce plants need for water therefore corresponding for the negative effects of climate change.
Global warming will affect one of agriculture most critical requirement, soil moisture, as it does not only depend on rainfall but also evapotranspiration of water from plants and soil. There is reduction of oil moisture when temperature increases.
Changes in ocean temperatures and hence the location and intensity of upwelling’s of nutrients are likely to alter the population and distribution of fish. Some species thrive well in I warm conditions, while others more to areas out of range.
Doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide could cause sea level to rise up by 1m by 2100. Many of the worlds coastal and delta region are densely populated. Flooding will result from the rise of sea level and will destroy or disrupt human settlements agriculture and industry and affect millions of people. Storm flooding will also be common; will threaten areas with hurricanes or severe storms.
Transport system will not escape the effects of global warming. Reduced sea and river ice and snowfall would affect shipping, air travel and rail transport.
In terms of human settlement and health as the populations may not respond to natural disasters such as flooding. Urban areas will suffer more from global than rural areas because they are already ‘heat islands’ in a cooler rural sea. The removal of vegetation, the construction of buildings, roads, pavements and heat generated by human activities raise temperature in build up areas.
In the global warming implications, climate change may expose humans to new health threats and diseases. High temperatures will place stress on circulatory system, thus increasing mortality. Higher temperatures will increase levels of low level ozone and oxides of nitrogen. These may cause eye inflammation as well as respiratory disease. This situation will also affect the range of diseases. This situation will also affect the range of diseases especially those spread by vector such as mosquitoes especially in temperate regions.
In conclusion, the issue of global warming could prove unpredictable, the timing, magnitude and regional impacts of climate change cannot be assessed with absolute certainty. There many steps that can be taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate the effects of climate change and help society to adapt to new climatic conditions.
References:
Bird, E. C. F, (1992), submerging coasts; the effects of a riding sea level on coastal environments. Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, john Wiley and sons.
Downing I. E (1992), climate change and vulnerable places; global food security and country studies in Zimbabwe, Kenya, Senegal and Chile. Oxford, environmental change unit.
M.C.G, Tergat, W.J., SHELDON, G W and graffiths, D.C (1990), climatic change; the ipcc impact assessment. Canberra, Australian government publishing service.
Question 2: Name any two types of natural disasters; explain their effects and mitigation measures.20mks
1.0 Introduction
Natural disasters are often frightening and difficult for us to understand, because we have no control over when and where they happen. What we can control is how prepared we are as communities and governments to deal with the dangers that natural disasters bring.
Places that are more likely to have natural disasters, such as the earthquake-prone Pacific Ring of Fire, or coastal areas vulnerable to hurricanes, require accurate methods of predicting disasters and warning the public quickly. Once the people have been informed, evacuation routes must be provided so that they can all leave quickly and safely, even if they travel by foot. Emergency warnings and evacuation plans are not enough, though. Where there is a high risk of earthquakes, buildings need to be strong and flexible enough to survive a quake without collapsing. Where hurricanes and flooding are a problem, levees and dams must be strong enough to hold floodwaters, and natural drainage systems must be maintained to allow waters to flow back into the ocean. The failure of the levee and drainage systems was responsible for most of the destruction and flooding in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina in 2005. It was the poor planning of evacuation routes and assistance for those trapped by the flooding that resulted in the many tragic fatalities.
People need to be educated on the risks in their area, and what to do when a disaster strikes. After a disaster, even if no one has died, there is a lot of damage to people' homes, farms and workplaces that must be repaired. This takes a lot of time and money to fix, and a country damaged by a disaster usually needs a large amount of international help to get better. Donated food, clothing, medicine and experienced professionals are all important when there is a disaster, but when the emergency is over it can take years to rebuild and make sure that future disasters can be managed. The boxing-day tsunami which devastated Indonesia and the 2005 earthquake in Kashmir, Pakistan were both natural disasters whose effects were made worse by underdeveloped infrastructure and widespread poverty. Tsunamis, earthquakes, hurricanes or any other natural disaster can't be avoided, but with good preparation and well-organized help after the fact, it is possible to survive and go back to normal life afterwards.
People need to be educated on the risks in their area, and what to do when a disaster strikes. After a disaster, even if no one has died, there is a lot of damage to people' homes, farms and workplaces that must be repaired. This takes a lot of time and money to fix, and a country damaged by a disaster usually needs a large amount of international help to get better. Donated food, clothing, medicine and experienced professionals are all important when there is a disaster, but when the emergency is over it can take years to rebuild and make sure that future disasters can be managed. The boxing-day tsunami which devastated Indonesia and the 2005 earthquake in Kashmir, Pakistan were both natural disasters whose effects were made worse by underdeveloped infrastructure and widespread poverty. Tsunamis, earthquakes, hurricanes or any other natural disaster can't be avoided, but with good preparation and well-organized help after the fact, it is possible to survive and go back to normal life afterwards.
2.0 Definition of terms
2.1 A natural disaster
is the effect of a natural hazard (e.g., flood, tornado, hurricane, volcanic eruption, earthquake, or landslide). It leads to financial, environmental or human losses. The resulting loss depends on the vulnerability of the affected population to resist the hazard, also called their resilience. (Bankoff, Frerks, Hillhorst, 2003) This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability." (B.wisner, 2004) A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas luis flores(2008) The term natural has consequently been disputed because the events simply are not hazards or disasters without human involvement. D.alexander, 2002) A concrete example of the division between a natural hazard and a natural disaster is that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was a disaster, whereas earthquakes are a hazard.
2.2 Mitigation
Climate change mitigation is action to decrease the intensity of radioactive forcing in order to reduce the potential effects of global warming.[6] Mitigation is distinguished from adaptation to global warming, which involves acting to tolerate the effects of global warming. Most often, climate change mitigation scenarios involve reductions in the concentrations of greenhouse gases, either by reducing their sources[7] or by increasing their sinks.
The UN defines mitigation in the context of climate change, as a human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases. Examples include using fossil fuels more efficiently for industrial processes or electricity generation, switching to renewable energy (solar energy or wind power), improving the insulation of buildings, and expanding forests and other "sinks" to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.[8]
3.0 Types of natural disasters.
3.1 Volcanic eruptions
Volcanoes can cause widespread destruction and consequent disaster through several ways. The effects include the volcanic eruption itself that may cause harm following the explosion of the volcano or the fall of rock. Second, lava may be produced during the eruption of a volcano. As it leaves the volcano the lava destroys any buildings and plants it encounters. Third, volcanic ash generally meaning the cooled ash - may form a cloud, and settle thickly in nearby locations. When mixed with water this forms a concrete-like material. In sufficient quantity ash may cause roofs to collapse under its weight but even small quantities will harm humans if inhaled. Since the ash has the consistency of ground glass it causes abrasion damage to moving parts such as engines. The main killer of humans in the immediate surrounding of a volcanic eruption is the pyroclastic flows, which consist of a cloud of hot volcanic ash which builds up in the air above the volcano and rushes down the slopes when the eruption no longer supports the lifting of the gases.
A specific type of volcano is the super volcano. According to the Toba catastrophe theory 70 to 75 thousand years ago a super volcanic event at Lake Toba reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs creating a bottleneck in human evolution. It also killed three quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere. The main danger from a super volcano is the immense cloud of ash which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years.
The sudden violence of volcanic eruptions causes catastrophe and devastation. Various notorious eruptions of volcanoes in the past, such as Mount Pelée, Tambora, Krakatau and Pinatubo have demonstrated the devastating impact of volcanic activity on nearby landscapes and communities. Many people got killed. A big number of people had to abandon their homes and land forever. Even the whole world's climate was changed for a while as a result of an eruption!
3.2 Earthquakes
An earthquake is a sudden shake of the Earth's crust caused by the tectonic plates colliding. The vibrations may vary in magnitude. The underground point of origin of the earthquake is called the "focus". The point directly above the focus on the surface is called the “epicenter". Earthquakes by themselves rarely kill people or wildlife. It is usually the secondary events that they trigger, such as building collapse, fires, tsunamis (seismic sea waves) and volcanoes, which are actually the human disaster. Many of these could possibly be avoided by better construction, safety systems, early warning and evacuation planning. Earthquakes are caused by the discharge of energy accumulated along geologic fault.
Some of the most significant earthquakes in recent times include: The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the third largest earthquake in recorded history, registering a moment magnitude of 9.1-9.3. The huge tsunamis triggered by this earthquake cost the lives of at least 229,000 people.
Most earthquake-related deaths are caused by the collapse of structures and the construction practices play a tremendous role in the death toll of an earthquake. Although probably the most important, direct shaking effects are not the only hazard associated with earthquakes, other effects such as landslides, liquefaction, and tsunamis have also played important part in destruction produced by earthquakes.
4.0 Estimating Hazards
Preparing structures (either new or old) for earthquakes is expensive and the level of investment is a social and political decision. The choice of building design is a compromise between appearances, function, structure, strength, and of course, cost. Standards are instituted through the establishment of Building Codes, which regulate the design and construction of buildings. Most of our building codes are designed to protect first the building occupants, and second the building integrity. Building codes are usually drafted to meet the demands of the expected shaking in a given region that are summarized by seismologists and earthquake engineers in hazards maps. Hazard maps are constructed by examining
- The earthquake history of the region to estimate the probability of an earthquake
- The expected shaking intensity produced by the earthquake (often expressed as a peak acceleration)
- The frequency of the shaking, the distance from the fault
- The regional geology and site conditions
To estimate the maximum level of shaking expected during the lifetime of a building. Constructing accurate hazard maps is a challenge and remains the focus of much Geosciences research.
Explosive volcanic eruptions pose both short-term and long-term hazards. Lava flows and lahars can wipe out the flanks of mountainsides. Volcanic ash can blanket the landscape for miles, and ash clouds can disrupt aircraft travel, such as the incident in 1989 when ash from Alaska's Redoubt volcano temporarily disabled a passenger airplane. On longer time scales, eruptions can inject massive quantities of ash into the atmosphere, greatly reducing the solar heating of the Earth and potentially interrupting the global food supply for several years.
In 1991, Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines erupted, and strong winds spread the aerosol particles from the plume around the globe. The result was a measurable cooling of the Earth's surface for a period of almost two years. The role of natural hazards research and developing applications to mitigate the effects of disasters has global implications for reducing loss and saving lives.
6.1 Volcanic Risk Mitigation Plan
Volcano risk management aims to lessen the effects of volcanic hazards such as eruptions, lahars (mud flows) and ash fall by planning for evacuation (where necessary), response and recovery. Risk mitigation plans define the roles of Environment and the community in managing the impacts of potential natural hazard events.
Environment Volcano Risk Mitigation Plan aims to achieve efficient and effective volcano risk management through:
- clarifying the volcano management roles and responsibilities of various agencies
- dealing with the adverse effects of volcanic activity and the management options for minimizing them
- Planning for response, recovery, monitoring and review activities.
7.0 Summary
Natural disasters have a significant economic, social, environmental and political impact on the community. While some of the impacts of natural disasters can be mitigated, the risk cannot be completely eliminated. Therefore, decisions regarding what risks are acceptable need to be made by those involved in managing natural hazard impacts. However, a single event, such as a moderate earthquake in Sydney, could change the historical picture of natural hazards. It is for this reason that modeling potential impacts for a full range of small through to extreme events, and considering the potential impacts of climate change is important. The study of prehistoric impacts of natural hazards can be useful in extending the knowledge provided by historical records. The socioeconomic cost and natural disaster policy, as much as the spatial and temporal distribution of both hazards and communities, need to be considered when managing the impact of natural disasters. A hazard develops into a disaster when it has a widespread or concentrated negative impact on people. While Australia’s growing economy and technological advances may assist in managing disasters, they also make communities more vulnerable to the potential impact of hazards. This occurs through the increase and concentration of the population and the built environment, and a greater reliance on infrastructure such as power and water supplies. The difficulty of measuring the actual impact of a natural disaster on the community continues to be a major challenge because of the complexities in assessing loss. Intangible losses, such as destruction of personal memorabilia and the effects of post-disaster stress, are particularly difficult to measure. Though insured losses are the most easily captured, they are only a small proportion of total losses. These challenges need to be kept in mind when measuring and communicating ‘impact’. A key to reducing the overall risk is for those who play a role in the management of natural hazards to work closely with the wider community, as well as with each other
Reference:
1. Bankoff, G. Frerks, D. Hilhorst (2003). Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Development and People.
Check how you reference APA; if it’s a textbook, italicize or underline the title, if it’s a journal italicize the name of the journal etc….
You don’t number references in this case; so, remove the numbers
In referencing, we only start using a surname…..so, we cant start a reference with a B…………so start with the surname.
NB: The references that are here(reference list)……should have appeared inside the text; you cant have a reference here, yet it doesn’t appear anywhere in the text. You can check previous assignments or proposals.
2. B. Wisner, P. Blaikie, T. Cannon, and I. Davis (2004). At Risk - Natural hazards, people's vulnerability and disasters. Wiltshire: Routledge.
3. Luis Flores Ballesteros. "What determines a disaster?" 54 Pesos Sep 2008:54 Pesos 11 Sep 2008. <http://54pesos.org/2008/09/11/what-determines-a-disaster/>
4. D. Alexander (2002). Principles of Emergency planning and Management. Harpended: Terra publishing.
5. USGS Earthquake Details. United States Geological Survey. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2010/us2010tfan/.
6. IPCC Glossary Working Group III, p. 818" (PDF). http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/glossary/ar4-wg3.pdf. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
8. What are this marks just before molina…..
9. ^ "Glossary of climate change acronyms". Unfccc.int. 1997-11-30. http://unfccc.int/essential_background/glossary/items/3666.php.
10. ^ Schneider, Stephen H. (2004). "Abrupt non-linear climate change, irreversibility and surprise". Global Environmental Change (Elsevier) 14 (3): 245–258.
This paragraph has been referenced wrongly….
is the effect of a natural hazard (e.g., flood, tornado, hurricane, volcanic eruption, earthquake, or landslide). It leads to financial, environmental or human losses. The resulting loss depends on the vulnerability of the affected population to resist the hazard, also called their resilience. (Bankoff, Frerks, Hillhorst, 2003) This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability." (B.wisner, 2004) A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas luis flores(2008) The term natural has consequently been disputed because the events simply are not hazards or disasters without human involvement. D.alexander, 2002) A concrete example of the division between a natural hazard and a natural disaster is that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was a disaster, whereas earthquakes are a hazard.
We only use surname in referencing and not initials……ask Zachary ….all the references here should appear at the back in the reference list.
NB: The other thing I would like you to note is that you should have at least two citations in every page of your work…..if you don’t have at least one citation in every page; then it implies that work may not be very academic. As such, do not just copy paste information without showing the sources through the references…….the entire part 2 of the assignment whould have citations like the above paragraph. Make sure all the citations in the text, appear in the reference list.
You can check previous assignments; like the assignment that we printed yesterday since it’s the same for Kamau…..check how the referencing was done and try and adopt that in this document. I know you can do it. So, at least you can use that assignment as a sample of how to reference because that’s the problem.
Work on this amendments and then reforward the assignment. Make sure there is flow and coherence in your section 2.
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